When examining the biblical narrative, we often come across the term “pharaoh” to describe the ruler of Egypt during various events and interactions with the Israelites. Pharaoh, which means “great house,” became the title for the kings of Egypt, and several pharaohs are mentioned in the Bible, each playing a significant role in the stories told. In this article, we will explore the different pharaohs of the Bible and their crucial roles in these narratives.
One of the most famous pharaohs in the Bible is the Pharaoh of the Exodus, who faced a dramatic confrontation with Moses over the release of the Israelites from their enslavement in Egypt. The struggle between the two men led to the well-known story of the ten plagues and ultimately to the Israelites’ miraculous escape across the Red Sea. This significant event highlights the role of the pharaoh in the unfolding tale of the Israelites’ journey to freedom.
Another important pharaoh mentioned in the Bible is Shoshenq I, the founder of Egypt’s Twenty-second Dynasty and the earliest attested biblical figure in the archaeological record source. As we delve deeper into the stories and events that involve these pharaohs, we will uncover the complex relations between Egypt and the Israelites and gain a better understanding of their historical roles in the biblical narrative.
Historical Context of Pharaohs in Ancient Egypt
Rule and Significance of Pharaohs
In ancient Egypt, pharaohs were the rulers of the civilization, acting as both the head of state and the religious leader of their people. The term “pharaoh” means “Great House,” referring to the royal residence where the king resided (National Geographic Society). Initially, Egyptian rulers were called “kings,” but over time, the name “pharaoh” became the commonly used term.
As leaders of the ancient Egyptian civilization, pharaohs played a significant role in the growth and development of their society. They were responsible for maintaining a stable government, enacting laws, and ensuring the well-being of the people. They also led military campaigns and managed international relations with neighboring kingdoms.
Major Pharaohs and Their Reigns
Some of the most notable pharaohs of Egypt include:
- Djoser – Ruled from 2686 BCE to 2649 BCE, built the Step Pyramid (History Cooperative)
- Khufu – Ruled during the 26th century BCE, constructed the Great Pyramid of Giza
- Hatshepsut – Ruled from 1479 BCE to 1458 BCE, one of the few female pharaohs, known for her extensive building projects and trade expeditions
- Akhenaten – Ruled from 1353 BCE to 1336 BCE, introduced monotheism by worshiping the sun god Aten, married to Queen Nefertiti
- Tutankhamun – Ruled from 1332 BCE to 1323 BCE, restored polytheism after Akhenaten’s death, and renowned for his intact tomb discovered in 1922
- Ramesses II – Ruled from 1279 BCE to 1213 BCE, known as Ramesses the Great, expanded Egypt’s borders through military campaigns and built numerous monuments
The Role of Religion in Pharaoh’s Rule
Religion was an integral part of Egyptian society, and the pharaoh played a crucial role as the head of the state religion. As the divine representative of the gods, the pharaoh was responsible for maintaining cosmic order and offering prayers and offerings on behalf of the people (World History Encyclopedia).
The religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians were polytheistic, meaning they worshiped multiple gods, each controlling different aspects of life. However, during Akhenaten’s rule, there was a shift towards monotheism, with a focus on the worship of Aten, the sun god. This period was an anomaly in Egypt’s history, as the worship of multiple gods was restored after Akhenaten’s death.
Pharaohs also used their divine status to legitimize their rule, reinforcing the social hierarchy and maintaining order within their kingdom. They constructed grand temples and monuments as a testament to their power, authority, and connection with the gods.
Pharaohs Mentioned in the Bible
Pharaoh of the Exodus
The Pharaoh of the Exodus is a central figure in the biblical narrative. This story takes place in the Book of Exodus and details the conflict between Moses and the Pharaoh leading up to the Israelites’ miraculous escape from Egypt. Due to a lack of definitive historical records, the identity of this particular Pharaoh remains uncertain, though Ramesses II, or Ramesses the Great, is often suggested as a likely candidate, as Rameses is mentioned as a place name in Genesis and Exodus (source).
The story recounts God sending Moses to demand that the Pharaoh release the enslaved Hebrews from Egypt. When the Pharaoh repeatedly refuses, God inflicts ten plagues upon Egypt, including:
- Turning the Nile River to blood
- Infestations of frogs, gnats, and flies
- Livestock disease
- Painful boils on humans and animals
- Hail and fire storms
- Locust swarms
- Darkness lasting for three days
- Death of the firstborn
The final plague leads to the Pharaoh finally relenting, allowing the Israelites to leave Egypt. However, he later changes his mind and pursues the Israelites with his army, only to be defeated when God miraculously parts the Red Sea for the Israelites, allowing them to cross, and then closes the waters on the pursuing Egyptian forces.
Interactions with Biblical Figures
Several other Pharaohs are mentioned throughout the Bible, interacting with key biblical figures. In the Book of Genesis, there is a Pharaoh who encounters the patriarch Joseph. Joseph, having been sold into slavery in Egypt by his jealous brothers, eventually becomes a high-ranking official in the Pharaoh’s court. He interprets the Pharaoh’s dreams and warns of an impending famine. Under Joseph’s guidance, Egypt prepares for the famine and becomes a haven for Joseph’s family when they seek food and refuge.
Necho II, a Pharaoh during the 7th-century BC, is mentioned in the books of 1 Kings, 2 Kings, and 2 Chronicles. He fought against King Josiah of Judah, who attempted to prevent the Egyptian forces from assisting the Assyrians in their fight against the Babylonians. Josiah was mortally wounded in battle, and Necho II later placed Jehoiakim on the throne of Judah as a vassal king (source).
Throughout these interactions in the Bible, Pharaohs often served as common elements tying together the stories of various biblical figures and events. These historical figures undoubtedly shaped ancient Egyptian culture and influenced Israel’s history.
The Exodus: Pharaoh’s Defiance and Downfall
The Plagues and Pharaoh’s Resistance
In the biblical narrative, the Pharaoh of the Exodus is a key figure who engages in a dramatic showdown with Moses, who was chosen by God to lead the Hebrews out of Egypt. When Moses asked Pharaoh to release the Israelites, he refused, causing God to unleash a series of devastating plagues upon Egypt. These plagues included:
- Turning the Nile River into blood
- Infestations of frogs
- Lice or gnats
- Swarms of flies
- Diseased livestock
- Boils
- Hailstorms and fire
- Locusts
- Darkness
- The death of the firstborn
Despite experiencing this series of calamities, Pharaoh, whose heart was hardened by the LORD, continued to resist Moses’ demands to free the Hebrews. As a result, the suffering of his people escalated with each subsequent plague.
The Parting of the Red Sea and Pharaoh’s Defeat
After the tenth and final plague – the death of every Egyptian firstborn – Pharaoh finally relented and allowed the Israelites to leave. However, once they were gone, he changed his mind and assembled his army to pursue the fleeing Hebrews.
As the Israelites approached the Red Sea, it seemed as if they were trapped. But God, through Moses, miraculously parted the waters of the Red Sea, providing a pathway for the Hebrews to escape. Once the Israelites had safely crossed, the waters closed, engulfing Pharaoh’s army and leading to their demise.
Note: Some scholars believe that the Pharaoh of the Exodus is likely to be either Ramesses II or his successor Merneptah. However, the exact identity of the Pharaoh is still debated among experts.
Archaeological and Historical Evidence
Identifying the Biblical Pharaohs
Several pharaohs are mentioned in the Bible, and it is often challenging to accurately identify them due to the varying timelines and interpretations of historical records. However, some pharaohs have been proposed as the possible biblical figures, such as Ramesses I, Ramesses II, Merneptah, Amenhotep II, and Akhenaten.
- Ramesses I: Founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty, he ruled for a short time and is less likely to be the biblical pharaoh.
- Ramesses II: Also known as Ramesses the Great, he ruled for 62 years and is often associated with the pharaoh of the Exodus.
- Merneptah: Ramesses II’s successor, he left behind the Merneptah Stele, which contains the earliest known mention of Israel.
- Amenhotep II: A pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty who ruled for less than 40 years, some believe he was the pharaoh during the Exodus.
- Akhenaten: Known for his religious revolution, he ruled during the Eighteenth Dynasty and is sometimes linked to the biblical figure Joseph.
It’s important to note that these identifications are not definitive, and further archaeological evidence is needed to confirm the exact pharaoh during key biblical events.
Connections to Egyptian Chronology
Egyptian chronology is based on the records of various dynasties, including the list of pharaohs compiled by the Egyptian historian Manetho. Egypt was divided into three major time periods: the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. The biblical events related to the pharaohs mainly fall within the timeframe of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties.
Here, we present a table connecting the mentioned pharaohs and their respective dynasties:
| Pharaoh | Dynasty | Time Period in History |
| Ramesses I | Nineteenth | Late New Kingdom, Beginning of the Ramesside Period |
| Ramesses II | Nineteenth | Late New Kingdom, Ramesside Period |
| Merneptah | Nineteenth | Late New Kingdom, Ramesside Period |
| Amenhotep II | Eighteenth | Late Middle Kingdom, Beginning of the New Kingdom |
| Akhenaten | Eighteenth | New Kingdom, Amarna Period |
The identification of specific pharaohs in the Bible poses challenges due to the fluid nature of Egyptian chronology and the scarcity of conclusive archaeological evidence, such as tombs and inscriptions. For example, the tomb of Amenophis II has been discovered, but it doesn’t provide clear evidence of his connection to biblical events. As we continue to uncover more artifacts and historical records, our understanding of the biblical pharaohs and their role in history may become clearer. However, for now, these identifications remain subject to interpretation and debate.
Pharaohs in the Context of Israelite History
Confrontations with Israelite Kings
In the Old Testament, several pharaohs had significant interactions with Israelite kings. One of the earliest accounts involves Joseph, who was sold into slavery and eventually became a high-ranking official serving under a Pharaoh in Egypt. This allowed him to save his family, the Hebrews, from famine by bringing them to Egypt.
During the reign of King David, Egypt was not a significant player in Israelite history. However, when we reached the reign of King Solomon, the relationship between Israel and Egypt shifted. Solomon married a pharaoh’s daughter, signifying a political alliance. Additionally, Solomon had trade with Egypt, purchasing horses and chariots from the Egyptian king Siamun.
As we move forward to the period of the divided Israelite kingdom, Pharaoh Shoshenq invaded the territories of Israel and Judah, causing serious damage. The prophet Isaiah asserted the importance of relying on God rather than seeking Egyptian alliances.
We also encounter Pharaoh Taharqa in the context of the Assyrian invasion. King Hezekiah of Judah sought his help to counter Assyrian King Sennacherib’s invasion. However, the prophet Isaiah warned against relying on Egypt, and ultimately, it was divine intervention that saved Jerusalem from the Assyrian army.
The Impact of Pharaohs on Israelite Society
The influence of Egypt on Israelite society was profound. Due to their geographic proximity, Egypt played a significant role in shaping Israel’s economic, political, and cultural developments. Economically, Egypt was a major trade partner, providing resources like grain and luxury items, and serving as an avenue for international trade with other regions.
Politically, relations with Egypt ranged from alliances to hostilities. As mentioned earlier, Solomon’s marriage to a pharaoh’s daughter symbolized an alliance between the two nations. Conversely, the invasion of Israel by Pharaoh Shoshenq demonstrates the potential for conflict.
Culturally, Egyptian practices and beliefs impacted Israelite society. For example, the pottery and architectural styles of Israel during certain periods exhibit Egyptian influences. Additionally, some biblical texts, like the story of Joseph, contain Egyptian vocabulary and motifs.
In some cases, Israelite kings like Hezekiah and later, King Necho II and Hophra, sought help from Egypt in response to foreign threats. The prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah, however, warned against relying on Egypt for assistance, emphasizing the necessity of trusting in God for deliverance.
In summary, pharaohs played significant roles in the context of Israelite history, shaping the economic, political, and cultural environments of ancient Israel.
Frequently Asked Questions
Which Pharaoh was confronted by Moses in the Bible?
The Pharaoh confronted by Moses in the biblical narrative of the Exodus is not explicitly named. The Pharaoh is known for having a dramatic clash with Moses which led to the ten plagues ravaging Egypt and the subsequent escape of the Israelites. Theories about the specific Pharaoh are based on assumptions and dates, with the two leading theories focusing on the “early” date of c. 1446 BC and the “late” date of c. 1225 BC. You can find more information on this topic here.
Who was the Pharaoh during the time of Joseph in the Bible?
Similar to the Pharaoh of the Exodus, the Pharaoh during Joseph’s time is also not explicitly named in the Bible. Joseph’s story takes place during a time when the Hebrews were welcomed in Egypt, and Joseph rose to prominence as a trusted advisor to the Pharaoh. There is extensive literature on this topic, with much disagreement on the identity of the Pharaoh at that time. You can find more information on this here.
How many pharaohs are mentioned throughout the Biblical narrative?
There are several Pharaohs mentioned throughout the biblical narrative, with seven key Pharaohs having specific roles in various stories, including Abram and Sarai’s sojourn to Egypt, Joseph’s rise to power, and the Pharaohs of the Exodus and the Israelites’ enslavement.
Who was the Pharaoh who issued the decree to kill Hebrew babies?
The Pharaoh who issued the decree to kill Hebrew male babies was the Pharaoh of the Exodus, just before Moses was born. This decree was an attempt to control the growing population of the Israelites in Egypt. It eventually led to Moses being saved by the Pharaoh’s daughter and raised as her own, setting the stage for his later confrontation with the Pharaoh. More information can be found in the linked article.
Which Pharaoh is associated with the enslavement of the Israelites in Scripture?
The enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt is closely connected to the same Pharaoh who issued the decree to kill Hebrew babies. This Pharaoh saw the Israelites as a potential threat due to their increasing population and put them into harsh slavery as a means to control them. This period of enslavement ultimately ends with the events of the Exodus and the confrontation between Moses and the Pharaoh. Additional information on this topic can be found here.
